Friday, October 10, 2014

Cognitive Psychology





Cognitive Psychology

Buku ini  pertama kali diterbitkan tahun 2008 oleh Pearson Education Limited



Judul:  Cognitive Psychology
Oleh: Philip Quinland, etal
Penerbit: Pearson Education Limited
Tahun: 2008
Jumlah Halaman: 745 hal.

Penulis:

Philip Quinlan pertama perkuliahan pada tahun 1988, di Ilmu Cognitive di Departemen Psikologi, Birkbeck College, The University of London. Karena kedua keberuntungan dan masih muda ia mampu, ke posisi mengajar di Departemen Psikologi (sekarang) Royal Holloway, University of London tahun 1989. Dia tinggal dan meneror para siswa selama sekitar satu tahun sebelum menuju utara ke University of York, pada tahun 1991 Meskipun oposisi hampir tak tertahankan, ia mempertahankan komitmennya untuk Psikologi Kognitif, berpikir banyak koneksionisme hanya biasa bodoh, dan merasa bahwa biaya keuangan jauh lebih besar daripada keuntungan dari banyak pekerjaan saat ini di Cognitive Neuroscience.
Ben Dyson dianugerahi gelar PhD di University of York, Inggris, dilakukan sebuah persekutuan penelitian pasca-doktoral di The Rotman Research Institute, Kanada, dan saat ini menjadi dosen di Departemen Psikologi di University of Sussex, Inggris. Penelitiannya berfokus pada representasi kognitif pasif dan aktif dari suara menggunakan metodologi perilaku dan event-related potential (ERP). Baru-baru ini, ia menjadi tertarik pada memori auditori dan mekanisme psikologis terlibat dalam produksi dan persepsi seni.

Lingkup Pembahasan:

Buku ini dimulai dengan menetapkan dasar bagi belajar Psikologi Kognitif dalam hal menguraikan
sebuah disarikan, memproses informasi tentang perhitungan pikiran. Kedua permasalahan filsafat relatif rumit diperkenalkan di samping masalah pragmatis melibatkan pengujian hipotesis. Buku ini dimulai menjaring  melalui data empiris dengan sungguh-sungguh dalam Bab 3 tentang mengidentifikasi memori sensorik visual satu tertentu entry point ke Psikologi Kognitif. Pembaca akan  menemukan semua poin di antara termasuk persepsi, memori, bahasa, penalaran dan keterampilan akuisisi, sebelum mencapai Bab akhir 16 dan diskusi emosi dan kognisi. Buku ini  mencakup semua British Psychological Society (BPS)
sebagai berikut:  Topik Bab,  Persepsi: informasi visual pengolahan, persepsi pendengaran dan pengenalan pada Bab 2-6.  Perhatian pada Bab 8, 9.  Bab citra visual dan spasial pada bab 7, 15. 
Pemahaman pada Bab 14, 15.  Pengetahuan konseptual Bab 12.  Bab Belajar pada Bab 10, 12, 13. 
Akuisisi keterampilan dan keahlian pada Bab 13.  Memory: encoding dan proses pengambilan, bekerja,
otobiografi, episodik dan memori semantik, implisit dan memori eksplisit, perbaikan memori pada Bab 10-13.  Berpikir dan penalaran, pemecahan masalah, pengambilan keputusan pada Bab 15.
Bahasa: struktur, pemahaman, produksi, membaca pada Bab 14.  Model koneksionis pada Bab 12, 14.
Emosi dan kognisi pada Bab 16.



Daftar Isi:

List of figures and tables xxiv
Guided tour xxx
Preface xxxv
Acknowledgements xxxvii
About the authors xxxviii
Chapter 1 Foundations 1
Learning objectives 1
Chapter contents 1
 ‘If you don’t believe, she won’t come’: Playground hypothesising about the tooth fairy 2
Reflective questions 3
    Part 1: An historical perspective and why there is more to cognitive psychology than meets the
            eye 3
    Introduction and preliminary considerations 3
    The abstract nature of cognitive psychology 4
    Dualism and one of the many mind/body problems 5
    Behaviourism 6
    Some general points about behaviourism 8
     ‘Testability is falsifiability’: cognitive psychology and theory testing 13
    Contents Part 2: An introduction to the nature of explanation in cognitive psychology 17
    How the mind and the brain are related 18
    Marr’s levels of explanation and cognitive psychology 24
 
Chapter 2 Information processing and nature of the mind 31
Learning objectives 31
Chapter contents 31
Hold the bells! The unfortunate case of the modular fruit machine 32
Reflective questions 32
    Part 1: An introduction to computation and cognitive psychology 33
    Introduction and preliminary considerations 33
    Different methodological approaches to the study of the mind 34
    Information theory and information processing 37
    Information theory and human information processing 38
    The computational metaphor of mind and human cognition 40
    Physical symbol systems 41
    The special nature of minds and computers 44
    Part 2: So what is the mind really like? 49
    Marr’s principle of modular design 49
    Other conceptions of modularity 51
    Fodor’s modules 53
    Modularity and cognitive neuropsychology 55

Chapter 3 Visual processes and visual sensory memory 64
    Learning objectives 64
    Chapter contents 64
    Catching the last bus home? 65
    Reflective questions 65
    Introduction and preliminary considerations 65
    An introduction to sensory memory 66
    Visual sensory memory: iconic memory 67
    The ‘eye-as-a-camera’ view of visual perception 83
    Coding in the visual system 87
    Turvey’s (1973) experiments on masking 92
    Further evidence on where the icon is 96
    Iconic memory and the more durable store 98

Chapter 4 Masking, thresholds and consciousness 105
    Learning objectives 105
    Chapter contents 105
    While you were sleeping: The continuing joys of communal living 106
    Reflective questions 106
    Introduction and preliminary considerations 107
    The sequential account of processing and Turvey’s work on visual masking 108
    Masking by object substitution 110
    Masking and consciousness 113
    Drawing the line between conscious and non-conscious processing 115
    Thresholds and conscious perception 118
    Thresholds and perceptual defence 122
    Thresholds and signal detection theory 125
    The traditional interpretation of SDT in information processing terms 128
    More recent accounts of semantic activation without conscious  identification 131

Chapter 5 An introduction to perception 143
    Learning objectives 143
    Chapter contents 143
    ‘It only attacks when the moon is aglow’: The Beast of Burnley 144
    Reflective questions 144
    Introduction and preliminary considerations 144
    Distinguishing perception from cognition 145
    Drawing a distinction between the perceptual system and the cognitive system 147
    Familiarity and perception 148
    Recency and expectancy 157
    The Old Look/New Look schools in perception 166
    The New Look 172
    Perception as a process of unconscious inference 173

Chapter 6 Theories of perception 185
    Learning objectives 185
    Chapter contents 185
    But is it art? Aesthetic observations and twiglets 186
    Reflective questions 186
    Introduction and preliminary considerations 186
    Simplicity and likelihood 187
    Simplicity and likelihood reconsidered 193
    Simplicity, likelihood and the nature of perception 193
    Global-to-local processing 196
    Context effects in perception 206
    Context in the perception of speech 207
    Perception as a process of embellishment 213
    Phonemic restoration as an act of perceptual embellishment 216
    Pulling it all together 223

Chapter 7 Mental representation 228
    Learning objectives 228
    Chapter contents 228
    You are nothing! 229
    Reflective questions 229
    Introduction and preliminary considerations 230
    How rats running mazes led to some insights about mental representation 230
    Maps and cognitive maps 231
    Tolman’s alternative theoretical perspective to behaviourism 237
    Mental operations carried out on mental maps 240
    Maps and pictures-in-the-head 242
    Kosslyn’s view of mental pictures 244
    Dual-format systems 245
    Mental scanning 246
    Real space in the head: what is mental space really like? 249
    Depictive representations and a pause for thought 251
    The ambiguity of mental images 252
    Mental rotation 255
    Descriptive representations 258

Chapter 8 Attention: general introduction, basic models and data 271
    Learning objectives 271
    Chapter contents 271
    A cognitive psychologist in the DJ booth 272
    Reflective questions 273
    Introduction and preliminary considerations 273
    Out with the new and in with the old 273
    Early filtering accounts of selection 274
    The attenuated filter model of attention 282
    Late filtering accounts of selection 285
    No ‘structural bottleneck’ accounts of attention 288
    The notion of attentional resources 290
    Multiple resources? 299
    When doing two things at once is as easy as doing either alone 300
    Pulling it all together 302
    Perceptual load theory 305

Chapter 9 Attentional constraints and performance limitations 312
    Learning objectives 312
    Chapter contents 312
    Back in the booth 313
    Reflective questions 313
    Introduction and preliminary considerations 313
    Stages of information processing 314
    Studies of the psychological refractory period 317
    Standing back from the central bottlenecks 328
    PRP and driving 329
    Task switching 331
    Some additional theoretical ideas 336

Chapter 10 Human memory: an introduction 342
    Learning objectives 342
    Chapter contents 342
    You must remember this? A levels of processing approach to exam cramming 343
    Reflective questions 343
    Introduction and preliminary considerations 343
    Libraries/warehouses/computers 345
    The modularity of mind revisited 346
    Organisation and memory 349
    The levels of processing approach 351
    Compartmentalisation of memory 354
    Further divisions between memory systems 356
    The modal model and its detractors 367
    Memory as a vertical faculty 374

Chapter 11 Human memory: fallibilities and failures 387
    Learning objectives 387
    Chapter contents 387
    Night 388
    Reflective questions 388
    Introduction and preliminary considerations 388
    Headed records 389
    Eyewitness memory 391
    Even more accounts of the misleading information effect 400

Chapter 12 Semantic memory and concepts 416
    Learning objectives 416
    Chapter contents 416
    Wardrobe refreshing and memories of the Pyramid stage 417
    Reflective questions 417
    Introduction and preliminary considerations 418
    Feature models 430
    Semantic features, semantic primitives and cogits 436
    Prototypes 453

Chapter 13 Object recognition 464
    Learning objectives 464
    Chapter contents 464
    But mine was small, grey and shiny as well: Disputes at baggage carousel number 6 465
    Reflective questions 465
    Introduction and preliminary considerations 466
    A general framework for thinking about object recognition 467
    The basic level advantage 468
    Further claims about the basic level advantage and perceptual processing 470
    The basic level advantage and expertise 471
    Further issues and controversies in visual object recognition 475
    Additional useful terminology: introduction to Marr’s theory 477
    Connections with the previous material 483
    Empirical evidence that bears on Marr’s theory 483
    Restricted viewpoint-invariant theories 490
    Privileged view or privileged views? 498
    Evidence regarding context and object recognition 503

Chapter 14 The nature of language and its relation to the other mental faculties 509
    Learning objectives 509
    Chapter contents 509
    Off the starting blocks: Language on a lazy Sunday afternoon 510
    Reflective questions 510
    Introduction and preliminary considerations 511
    Some basic characteristics of natural language 511
    The difference between the surface forms of language and the deeper forms 513
    The componential nature of language 515
    Other basic characteristics of natural language 519
    Syntactic parsing on-line 524
    Mental rules 532
    The past-tense debate 533
    Language, knowledge and perception 542

Chapter 15 Reasoning 557
    Learning objectives 557
    Chapter contents 557
    A day at the races 558
    Reflective questions 558
    Introduction and preliminary considerations 559
    The dual system account of reasoning 559
    Reasoning by heuristics and biases 562
    The medical diagnosis problem 567
    Heuristics and biases and the competence/performance distinction 570
    Natural frequencies vs. conditional probabilities 572
    The two systems of reasoning revisited 574
    Reasoning in evolutionary terms 575
    Evolution and the modularity of mind 579
    Deductive and inductive inference 580
    The Wason selection task 581
    Deductive reasoning and syllogisms 589
    Psychological aspects of syllogistic reasoning 591

Chapter 16 Cognition and emotion 600
    Learning objectives 600
    Chapter contents 600
    Master of your mood? 601
    Reflective questions 601
    Introduction and preliminary considerations 601
    Towards a cognitive theory of emotions 603
    Conscious versus unconscious processing 607
    Eye gaze, facial expression and the direction of attention 621
    Detecting threatening objects 629
    Other indications of the influence of emotion on cognition 632
    Mood and judgement 635
Bibliography 641
Glossary 665
Name index 681
Subject index 688
Publisher’s acknowledgements 699




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