Cognitive Psychology
Buku ini pertama kali diterbitkan tahun 2008 oleh Pearson Education Limited
Judul: Cognitive Psychology
Oleh: Philip Quinland, etal
Penerbit: Pearson Education Limited
Tahun: 2008
Jumlah Halaman: 745 hal.
Penulis:
Philip Quinlan pertama perkuliahan pada tahun 1988, di Ilmu Cognitive di Departemen Psikologi, Birkbeck College, The University of London. Karena kedua keberuntungan dan masih muda ia mampu, ke posisi mengajar di Departemen Psikologi (sekarang) Royal Holloway, University of London tahun 1989. Dia tinggal dan meneror para siswa selama sekitar satu tahun sebelum menuju utara ke University of York, pada tahun 1991 Meskipun oposisi hampir tak tertahankan, ia mempertahankan komitmennya untuk Psikologi Kognitif, berpikir banyak koneksionisme hanya biasa bodoh, dan merasa bahwa biaya keuangan jauh lebih besar daripada keuntungan dari banyak pekerjaan saat ini di Cognitive Neuroscience.
Ben Dyson dianugerahi gelar PhD di University of York, Inggris, dilakukan sebuah persekutuan penelitian pasca-doktoral di The Rotman Research Institute, Kanada, dan saat ini menjadi dosen di Departemen Psikologi di University of Sussex, Inggris. Penelitiannya berfokus pada representasi kognitif pasif dan aktif dari suara menggunakan metodologi perilaku dan event-related potential (ERP). Baru-baru ini, ia menjadi tertarik pada memori auditori dan mekanisme psikologis terlibat dalam produksi dan persepsi seni.
Lingkup Pembahasan:
Buku ini dimulai dengan menetapkan dasar bagi belajar Psikologi Kognitif dalam hal menguraikan
sebuah disarikan, memproses informasi tentang perhitungan pikiran. Kedua permasalahan filsafat relatif rumit diperkenalkan di samping masalah pragmatis melibatkan pengujian hipotesis. Buku ini dimulai menjaring melalui data empiris dengan sungguh-sungguh dalam Bab 3 tentang mengidentifikasi memori sensorik visual satu tertentu entry point ke Psikologi Kognitif. Pembaca akan menemukan semua poin di antara termasuk persepsi, memori, bahasa, penalaran dan keterampilan akuisisi, sebelum mencapai Bab akhir 16 dan diskusi emosi dan kognisi. Buku ini mencakup semua British Psychological Society (BPS)
sebagai berikut: Topik Bab, Persepsi: informasi visual pengolahan, persepsi pendengaran dan pengenalan pada Bab 2-6. Perhatian pada Bab 8, 9. Bab citra visual dan spasial pada bab 7, 15.
Pemahaman pada Bab 14, 15. Pengetahuan konseptual Bab 12. Bab Belajar pada Bab 10, 12, 13.
Akuisisi keterampilan dan keahlian pada Bab 13. Memory: encoding dan proses pengambilan, bekerja,
otobiografi, episodik dan memori semantik, implisit dan memori eksplisit, perbaikan memori pada Bab 10-13. Berpikir dan penalaran, pemecahan masalah, pengambilan keputusan pada Bab 15.
Bahasa: struktur, pemahaman, produksi, membaca pada Bab 14. Model koneksionis pada Bab 12, 14.
Emosi dan kognisi pada Bab 16.
Daftar Isi:
List of figures and tables xxiv
Guided tour xxx
Preface xxxv
Acknowledgements xxxvii
About the authors xxxviii
Chapter 1 Foundations 1
Learning objectives 1
Chapter contents 1
‘If you don’t believe, she won’t come’: Playground hypothesising about the tooth fairy 2
Reflective questions 3
Part 1: An historical perspective and why there is more to cognitive psychology than meets the
eye 3
Introduction and preliminary considerations 3
The abstract nature of cognitive psychology 4
Dualism and one of the many mind/body problems 5
Behaviourism 6
Some general points about behaviourism 8
‘Testability is falsifiability’: cognitive psychology and theory testing 13
Contents Part 2: An introduction to the nature of explanation in cognitive psychology 17
How the mind and the brain are related 18
Marr’s levels of explanation and cognitive psychology 24
Chapter 2 Information processing and nature of the mind 31
Learning objectives 31
Chapter contents 31
Hold the bells! The unfortunate case of the modular fruit machine 32
Reflective questions 32
Part 1: An introduction to computation and cognitive psychology 33
Introduction and preliminary considerations 33
Different methodological approaches to the study of the mind 34
Information theory and information processing 37
Information theory and human information processing 38
The computational metaphor of mind and human cognition 40
Physical symbol systems 41
The special nature of minds and computers 44
Part 2: So what is the mind really like? 49
Marr’s principle of modular design 49
Other conceptions of modularity 51
Fodor’s modules 53
Modularity and cognitive neuropsychology 55
Chapter 3 Visual processes and visual sensory memory 64
Learning objectives 64
Chapter contents 64
Catching the last bus home? 65
Reflective questions 65
Introduction and preliminary considerations 65
An introduction to sensory memory 66
Visual sensory memory: iconic memory 67
The ‘eye-as-a-camera’ view of visual perception 83
Coding in the visual system 87
Turvey’s (1973) experiments on masking 92
Further evidence on where the icon is 96
Iconic memory and the more durable store 98
Chapter 4 Masking, thresholds and consciousness 105
Learning objectives 105
Chapter contents 105
While you were sleeping: The continuing joys of communal living 106
Reflective questions 106
Introduction and preliminary considerations 107
The sequential account of processing and Turvey’s work on visual masking 108
Masking by object substitution 110
Masking and consciousness 113
Drawing the line between conscious and non-conscious processing 115
Thresholds and conscious perception 118
Thresholds and perceptual defence 122
Thresholds and signal detection theory 125
The traditional interpretation of SDT in information processing terms 128
More recent accounts of semantic activation without conscious identification 131
Chapter 5 An introduction to perception 143
Learning objectives 143
Chapter contents 143
‘It only attacks when the moon is aglow’: The Beast of Burnley 144
Reflective questions 144
Introduction and preliminary considerations 144
Distinguishing perception from cognition 145
Drawing a distinction between the perceptual system and the cognitive system 147
Familiarity and perception 148
Recency and expectancy 157
The Old Look/New Look schools in perception 166
The New Look 172
Perception as a process of unconscious inference 173
Chapter 6 Theories of perception 185
Learning objectives 185
Chapter contents 185
But is it art? Aesthetic observations and twiglets 186
Reflective questions 186
Introduction and preliminary considerations 186
Simplicity and likelihood 187
Simplicity and likelihood reconsidered 193
Simplicity, likelihood and the nature of perception 193
Global-to-local processing 196
Context effects in perception 206
Context in the perception of speech 207
Perception as a process of embellishment 213
Phonemic restoration as an act of perceptual embellishment 216
Pulling it all together 223
Chapter 7 Mental representation 228
Learning objectives 228
Chapter contents 228
You are nothing! 229
Reflective questions 229
Introduction and preliminary considerations 230
How rats running mazes led to some insights about mental representation 230
Maps and cognitive maps 231
Tolman’s alternative theoretical perspective to behaviourism 237
Mental operations carried out on mental maps 240
Maps and pictures-in-the-head 242
Kosslyn’s view of mental pictures 244
Dual-format systems 245
Mental scanning 246
Real space in the head: what is mental space really like? 249
Depictive representations and a pause for thought 251
The ambiguity of mental images 252
Mental rotation 255
Descriptive representations 258
Chapter 8 Attention: general introduction, basic models and data 271
Learning objectives 271
Chapter contents 271
A cognitive psychologist in the DJ booth 272
Reflective questions 273
Introduction and preliminary considerations 273
Out with the new and in with the old 273
Early filtering accounts of selection 274
The attenuated filter model of attention 282
Late filtering accounts of selection 285
No ‘structural bottleneck’ accounts of attention 288
The notion of attentional resources 290
Multiple resources? 299
When doing two things at once is as easy as doing either alone 300
Pulling it all together 302
Perceptual load theory 305
Chapter 9 Attentional constraints and performance limitations 312
Learning objectives 312
Chapter contents 312
Back in the booth 313
Reflective questions 313
Introduction and preliminary considerations 313
Stages of information processing 314
Studies of the psychological refractory period 317
Standing back from the central bottlenecks 328
PRP and driving 329
Task switching 331
Some additional theoretical ideas 336
Chapter 10 Human memory: an introduction 342
Learning objectives 342
Chapter contents 342
You must remember this? A levels of processing approach to exam cramming 343
Reflective questions 343
Introduction and preliminary considerations 343
Libraries/warehouses/computers 345
The modularity of mind revisited 346
Organisation and memory 349
The levels of processing approach 351
Compartmentalisation of memory 354
Further divisions between memory systems 356
The modal model and its detractors 367
Memory as a vertical faculty 374
Chapter 11 Human memory: fallibilities and failures 387
Learning objectives 387
Chapter contents 387
Night 388
Reflective questions 388
Introduction and preliminary considerations 388
Headed records 389
Eyewitness memory 391
Even more accounts of the misleading information effect 400
Chapter 12 Semantic memory and concepts 416
Learning objectives 416
Chapter contents 416
Wardrobe refreshing and memories of the Pyramid stage 417
Reflective questions 417
Introduction and preliminary considerations 418
Feature models 430
Semantic features, semantic primitives and cogits 436
Prototypes 453
Chapter 13 Object recognition 464
Learning objectives 464
Chapter contents 464
But mine was small, grey and shiny as well: Disputes at baggage carousel number 6 465
Reflective questions 465
Introduction and preliminary considerations 466
A general framework for thinking about object recognition 467
The basic level advantage 468
Further claims about the basic level advantage and perceptual processing 470
The basic level advantage and expertise 471
Further issues and controversies in visual object recognition 475
Additional useful terminology: introduction to Marr’s theory 477
Connections with the previous material 483
Empirical evidence that bears on Marr’s theory 483
Restricted viewpoint-invariant theories 490
Privileged view or privileged views? 498
Evidence regarding context and object recognition 503
Chapter 14 The nature of language and its relation to the other mental faculties 509
Learning objectives 509
Chapter contents 509
Off the starting blocks: Language on a lazy Sunday afternoon 510
Reflective questions 510
Introduction and preliminary considerations 511
Some basic characteristics of natural language 511
The difference between the surface forms of language and the deeper forms 513
The componential nature of language 515
Other basic characteristics of natural language 519
Syntactic parsing on-line 524
Mental rules 532
The past-tense debate 533
Language, knowledge and perception 542
Chapter 15 Reasoning 557
Learning objectives 557
Chapter contents 557
A day at the races 558
Reflective questions 558
Introduction and preliminary considerations 559
The dual system account of reasoning 559
Reasoning by heuristics and biases 562
The medical diagnosis problem 567
Heuristics and biases and the competence/performance distinction 570
Natural frequencies vs. conditional probabilities 572
The two systems of reasoning revisited 574
Reasoning in evolutionary terms 575
Evolution and the modularity of mind 579
Deductive and inductive inference 580
The Wason selection task 581
Deductive reasoning and syllogisms 589
Psychological aspects of syllogistic reasoning 591
Chapter 16 Cognition and emotion 600
Learning objectives 600
Chapter contents 600
Master of your mood? 601
Reflective questions 601
Introduction and preliminary considerations 601
Towards a cognitive theory of emotions 603
Conscious versus unconscious processing 607
Eye gaze, facial expression and the direction of attention 621
Detecting threatening objects 629
Other indications of the influence of emotion on cognition 632
Mood and judgement 635
Bibliography 641
Glossary 665
Name index 681
Subject index 688
Publisher’s acknowledgements 699
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