An Introduction Gognitive Psychology Processes and Disorders
Buku ini pertama kali diterbitkan pada tahun 1999 Oleh Psychology Press, London and New York. Tetapi buku ini terbit tahun 2005 oleh Taylor & Francis e-Library
Judul: An Introduction Gognitive Psychology Processes and Disorders
Oleh: David Groome
Penerbit: Taylor & Francis e-Library
Tahun: 2005
Jumlah Halaman: 288 hal.
Pengarang:
David Groome is Senior Lecturer in Psychology at the University of Westminster.
Hazel Dewart, Anthony Esgate, Richard Kemp and Nicola Towell are all Senior Lecturers in Psychology at the University of Westminster; Kevin Gurney is a Lecturer in Psychology at the University of Sheffield.
The authors who have contributed to this book are all lecturers in the Psychology Department of the University of Westminster, except for Kevin Gurney who lectures at the University of Sheffield. The authorship of individual chapters was as follows:
Chapter 1: David Groome
Chapter 2: Anthony Esgate
Chapter 3: Richard Kemp
Chapter 4: David Groome
Chapter 5: David Groome
Chapter 6: Nicola Towell
Chapter 7: Nicola Towell
Chapter 8: Hazel Dewart
Chapter 9: Hazel Dewart
Chapter 10: Kevin Gurney
Lingkup Pembahasan:
Buku ini adalah buku teks yang komprehensif untuk mahasiswa.
Buku ini menyediakan dalam bab volume tunggal terkait pada kedua fungsi kognitif normal dan gangguan klinis. Buku mencakup semua tingkat kemampuan, memiliki kedalaman yang cukup dan penelitian terbaru untuk menarik siswa yang paling mampu sedangkan jelas dan teks dapat diakses, ditulis oleh guru-guru berpengalaman, akan membantu siswa yang menemukan materi yang sulit. Ini akan menarik bagi setiap siswa pada program gelar sarjana psikologi serta mahasiswa kedokteran dan mereka yang belajar di terkait profesi klinis seperti perawat.
Fitur utama:
• Bab di semua bidang utama psikologi kognitif normal (persepsi, memori, bahasa dan berpikir)
dipasangkan dengan gangguan yang sesuai mereka kognisi (agnosia, amnesia, afasia dan berpikir
gangguan)
• Jelas signposted: topik bab yang jelas terpisah dan mudah terletak
• fitur buku teks yang dirancang khusus mencakup ringkasan bab, membaca annotatedfurther dan daftar
istilah kunci
• Penulis berada di garis depan berkaitan dengan bidang studi, memberikan informasi penelitian dan
beasiswa yang paling up-to-date.
Daftar Isi:
LIST OF FIGURES xii
ABOUT THE AUTHORS xiv
PREFACE xv
1 Introduction to cognitive psychology 1
1.1 COGNITIVE PROCESSES 1
A definition of cognitive psychology 1
Stages of cognitive processing 1
Approaches to the study of cognition 2
1.2 EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 3
The first cognitive psychologists 3
The rise and fall of behaviourism 3
Gestalt and schema theories 3
1.3 COMPUTER MODELS OF INFORMATION PROCESSING 4
The computer analogy 4
Computer modelling of brain function 5
The limited-capacity processor model 5
1.4 COGNITIVE NEUROPSYCHOLOGY 5
The structure and function of the brain 5
The effects of brain damage on cognition 7
Information storage in the brain 7
1.5 MINDS, BRAINS AND COMPUTERS 9
The brain as an information processing device 9
Top-down and bottom-up processing 9
Automatic and controlled processing 10
Conscious awareness 10
Integrating the main approaches to cognition 11
SUMMARY 11
FURTHER READING 12
2 Perception and attention 13
2.1 THE BIOLOGICAL BASES OF PERCEPTION 13
The process of perception 13
The visual system 13
Damage to the visual pathway 14
Primary visual processing 14
Evidence for two separate systems 15
Spatial frequency analysis 15
2.2 PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO VISUAL PERCEPTION 16
The Gestalt approach 16
Top-down and bottom-up processing 17
Perceptual constancy 17
Depth perception 18
2.3 VISUAL ILLUSIONS 19
Theoretical explanations of illusions 19
Top-down, bottom-up, side-ways rules or physiological fatigue? 20
2.4 MARR’S THEORY 21
The primal sketch 21
The 2.5-D representation and the 3-D model 21
Evaluation of Marr’s approach 21
2.5 OBJECT RECOGNITION PROCESSES 22
Templates and prototypes 22
Feature analysis 23
Pandemonium 24
Top-down influences 25
Context effects 26
Local and global relationships 27
2.6 PERCEPTION: A SUMMARY 27
General conclusions 27
2.7 ATTENTION 28
The cocktail party phenomenon 28
Early or late selection? 29
Visual studies 30
Inhibitory mechanisms 30
2.8 THE ROLE OF ATTENTION IN PERCEPTION 31
Attentional glue 31
2.9 AUTOMATICITY 31
Shiffrin and Schneider’s theory 31
2.10 THE SPOTLIGHT MODEL OF VISUAL ATTENTION 32
Visual orienting 32
Neurological impairments of orienting 33
Central and peripheral cueing: two systems? 33
The zoom-lens modification 33
Inhibition of return 33
2.11 VISUAL ATTENTION 34
What or where? 34
2.12 PERCEPTION, ATTENTION AND CONSCIOUSNESS 34
A new look at a new look 34
SUMMARY 35
FURTHER READING 36
3 Disorders of perception and attention 37
3.1 INTRODUCTION 37
3.2 BLINDSIGHT 37
Blindsight—a sceptical perspective 38
The sensation of blindsight 38
The implications of blindsight: one visual system or two? 39
3.3 UNILATERAL SPATIAL NEGLECT 40
A disorder of attention? 40
Explaining spatial neglect 41
3.4 VISUAL AGNOSIA 41
Apperceptive and associative agnosia 41
The localisation of lesions in patients with apperceptive agnosia 42
The localisation of lesions in patients with associative agnosia 42
Concerns over the validity of visual agnosia 43
HJA—a case history in visual agnosia 43
Humphreys and Riddoch’s classification of agnosia 44
Farah’s classification of agnosia 46
The experience of visual agnosia 47
The specificity of perceptual deficits in visual agnosia 47
Recognising living and non-living objects 48
Recognising typical and unusual views of objects 49
Mental imagery, perception and visual agnosia 50
Perception and action 50
3.5 DISORDERS OF FACE PROCESSING—PROSOPAGNOSIA AND RELATED
CONDITIONS 52
Prosopagnosia 52
Prosopagnosia—a face-specific disorder? 53
Covert recognition in prosopagnosia 54
The case of the unknown sheep: a case study in prosopagnosia 54
Facial expression, lip-reading and face recognition 55
Deficits in the perception of specific facial expressions 56
SUMMARY 56
FURTHER READING 57
4 Memory 59
4.1 THE NATURE AND FUNCTION OF MEMORY 59
Memory and its importance in everyday life 59
Encoding, storage and retrieval of memory 59
Methods of testing memory 60
How many types of memory store are there? 60
4.2 MULTISTORE MODELS AND WORKING MEMORY 60
Multistore models of memory 60
Measuring STM performance 61
The working memory model 62
4.3 EBBINGHAUS AND THE FIRST LONG-TERM MEMORY EXPERIMENTS 64
The work of Ebbinghaus 64
Interference and decay 64
4.4 THE ROLE OF KNOWLEDGE, MEANING AND SCHEMAS IN MEMORY 65
Meaning and mnemonics 65
Bartlett’s story recall experiments and the schema theory 66
The war of the ghosts 66
The effect of meaning and knowledge on memory 67
The balloons passage 67
Schemas and scripts 68
4.5 INPUT PROCESSING AND ENCODING 69
Levels of processing theory 69
Orienting tasks 69
Elaborative encoding 70
Elaborative and maintenance rehearsal 71
Transfer-appropriate processing 71
4.6 RETRIEVAL CUES AND FEATURE OVERLAP 72
The encoding specificity principle 72
Context-dependent memory 73
State-dependent and mood-dependent memory 74
Crime reconstructions and cognitive interviews 74
Episodic and semantic memory 75
4.7 RETRIEVAL MECHANISMS IN RECALL AND RECOGNITION 76
Recall and recognition performance 76
ESP and GR theories of retrieval 76
4.8 AUTOMATIC AND CONTROLLED MEMORY PROCESSES 77
Familiarity and recollection as retrieval processes 77
Implicit and explicit memory 77
The process dissociation procedure 78
4.9 MEMORY IN REAL LIFE 80
Ecological validity 80
Autobiographical memory 80
Flashbulb memories 81
Eyewitness testimony 81
Memory, real life and amnesia 82
SUMMARY 82
FURTHER READING 82
5 Disorders of memory 83
5.1 AMNESIA 83
The tragic effects of amnesia 83
Case study: Ronald Reagan 83
Organic and psychogenic amnesias 84
5.2 THE CAUSES OF ORGANIC AMNESIA 85
The aetiology of amnesia 85
Brain lesions associated with amnesia 85
The main symptoms of amnesia 86
Case study: Temporal lobe surgery (HM) 87
5.3 SHORT-TERM AND LONG-TERM MEMORY IMPAIRMENTS 87
Intact STM in organic amnesia 87
Short-term memory impairment 88
5.4 ANTEROGRADE AND RETROGRADE AMNESIA 88
Distinguishing anterograde from retrograde amnesia 88
Tests of remote memory 89
Retrograde impairment in organic amnesics 89
Learning-deficit theories of amnesia 90
Retrieval-deficit theories of amnesia 90
Isolated retrograde and anterograde amnesia 91
Brain lesions and impaired learning and retrieval 91
Case study: Severe amnesia following Herpes Simplex Encephalitis infection (Clive W) 91
5.5 MEMORY FUNCTIONS PRESERVED IN AMNESIA 92
Motor skills 92
Implicit and explicit memory 93
Familiarity and context recollection 93
Semantic and episodic memory 95
Explaining preserved memory function in amnesia 95
5.6 OTHER TYPES OF AMNESIA 97
Frontal lobe lesions 97
Memory loss in the normal elderly 97
Concussion amnesia 98
ECT and memory loss 98
SUMMARY 99
FURTHER READING 100
6 Thinking 101
6.1 INTRODUCTION 101
6.2 EARLY RESEARCH ON PROBLEM-SOLVING 101
The Gestalt approach to problem-solving 102
6.3 PROBLEM-SPACE THEORY OF PROBLEM-SOLVING 103
Problem-solving strategies 104
6.4 PROBLEM-SOLVING AND KNOWLEDGE 105
Expertise 105
Problem-solving by analogy 106
6.5 DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE REASONING 107
Deductive reasoning 107
Mental models 110
Inductive reasoning: hypothesis generation and testing 111
The Wason Selection Task: hypothetico-deductive reasoning 112
Pragmatic reasoning schemata 114
6.6 STATISTICAL REASONING 114
6.7 EVERYDAY REASONING 116
SUMMARY 116
FURTHER READING 117
7 Disorders of thinking 118
7.1 INTRODUCTION 118
7.2 THE FRONTAL LOBES 118
Anatomy and physiology 118
Is there a ‘frontal lobe syndrome’? 119
7.3 PROBLEM-SOLVING AND REASONING DEFICITS 122
Impairments in attention 122
Impairments in abstract and conceptual thinking 123
Impairments in cognitive estimation 125
Impaired strategy formation 126
Deficits in everyday higher order planning 127
7.4 THE EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS OF THE FRONTAL LOBES 128
Supervisory attentional system 128
An alternative explanation 129
SUMMARY 130
FURTHER READING 130
8 Language 131
8.1 INTRODUCTION 131
8.2 THE LANGUAGE SYSTEM 132
Speech sounds 132
Word level 133
Sentence level 133
The level of discourse 134
8.3 PSYCHOLOGY AND LINGUISTICS 134
8.4 RECOGNISING SPOKEN AND WRITTEN WORDS 135
Explaining lexical access 137
8.5 PRODUCTION OF SPOKEN WORDS 138
8.6 SENTENCE COMPREHENSION 138
Syntactic processing 140
8.7 SENTENCE PRODUCTION 142
8.8 DISCOURSE LEVEL 144
SUMMARY 145
FURTHER READING 146
9 Disorders of language 147
9.1 INTRODUCTION 147
9.2 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 147
9.3 THE PSYCHOLINGUISTIC PERSPECTIVE 150
9.4 DISRUPTION TO LANGUAGE PROCESSING AT WORD LEVEL 151
Processing spoken words 151
The case of Derek B 152
Processing words in reading and writing 154
9.5 DISRUPTION TO PROCESSING OF SYNTAX 155
9.6 DISRUPTION TO PROCESSING OF DISCOURSE 157
SUMMARY 158
FURTHER READING 158
10 Computational models of cognition 159
10.1 THEORIES OF COGNITION: FROM METAPHORS TO COMPUTATIONAL MODELS 159
Paradigms and frameworks 160
Studying cognition as computation 161
AI, psychology and cognitive science 162
10.2 SYMBOL-BASED SYSTEMS 162
An example: playing chess 162
Symbols and computers 163
Knowledge representation 164
Shortcomings of the symbolic approach 166
10.3 CONNECTIONIST SYSTEMS 167
Real and artificial neurons 167
Feed-forward networks 167
Learning to read 169
The nature of representation in connectionist systems 170
Networks with feedback 171
A model of deep dyslexia 172
Shortcomings of the connectionist approach 173
10.4 SYMBOLS AND NEURONS COMPARED 174
Towards a synthesis 175
SUMMARY 176
FURTHER READING 177
GLOSSARY 178
REFERENCES 183
AUTHOR INDEX 203
SUBJECT INDEX
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