Sunday, December 13, 2015

Critical Thinking Unleashed






Critical Thinking Unleashed
Buku ini diterbitkan tahun 2009  oleh   Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.  UK  adalah buku edisi  Pertama.


Judul:  Critical Thinking Unleashed
Oleh:   Elliot D. Cohen
Penerbit:  Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.  UK
Tahun: 2009
Jumlah Halaman: 417 hal.

Penulis:
Elliot D. Cohen

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Lingkup Pembahasan:
Buku ini  membahas tentang penggunaan kekuatan berpikir kritis untuk berpikir bebas tentang
masalah kehidupan. Menjadi pemikir bebas seperti membutuhkan kebiasaan terus-menerus menerima
kesimpulan hanya setelah pemeriksaan hati-hati dari penalaran diajukan untuk dukungan mereka. Ini merupakan tantangan yang mengagumkan, mengingat hambatan pribadi, sosial, dan politik  masing-masing individu  yang   dihadapi dalam perjalanan hidup sehari-hari.
Dengan membaca buku ini dan bekerja melalui latihan,  Anda akan mulai mengasah keterampilan rasional  yang diperlukan untuk memenuhi tantangan ini. Ini adalah proyek seumur hidup.
Buku ini adalah buku untuk membebaskan kekuatan kritis seperti alasan. Hal ini bertujuan untuk membantu mengekspos irasional, mengalahkan diri sendiri, dan ide-ide destruktif yang menyita potensi manusia untuk produktivitas dan kebahagiaan. Hal ini bertujuan untuk mengatasi ide irasional dan menggantinya dengan yang rasional. Ini memberikan alat dan latihan keterampilan-bangunan logis  yang dapat membantu Anda melihat melalui logika menyesatkan dan logika bengkok yang mendasari masyarakat-satu tertutup yang gagal menerapkan metode rasional untuk mengatasi masalah manusia.

Daftar Isi:

Preface to the Student xiii
Introduction: Freethinking 1
Part I. Kinds of Reasoning
    1  The Nuts and Bolts of Reasoning 11

        Arguments 11
        Statements That Do Not Form Arguments 12
        Presenting an Argument versus Presenting a Good Argument 14
        Inductive and Deductive Arguments 17
        Identifying Premises and Conclusions in Arguments 19
    2  Deductive Reasoning 25
        Basics of Deductive Reasoning 25
    3  Hypothetical Syllogisms 33
        The Vocabulary of Conditional Statements 33
        Necessary versus Sufficient Conditions 35
    Forms of Hypothetical Syllogism 37
        Nonsyllogistic Conditional Arguments 48
        Setting Ordinary Language Arguments Up as Hypothetical Syllogisms 49
    4  Disjunctive Syllogisms 59
        The Core Meaning of “Or” 59
        Forms of Disjunctive Syllogisms 60
        Black or White Major Premises in Disjunctive Syllogisms 67
        False Dilemmas 70
    5  Truth-Functional Logic 77
        The Meaning of Truth-Functional Logic 77
        Symbolizing Truth-Functional Connectives 77
        Constructing Truth Tables to Define Truth-Functional Connectives 79
        Using Truth Tables to Determine the Validity of Truth-Functional Arguments 80
        Symbolizing and Analyzing Arguments in Ordinary Language 84
        Statement Forms 89
The Practical Import of Distinguishing Between Tautologous, Contingent, and Contradictory Statement Forms 90
        Material versus Logical Equivalence 92
        Three Logical Equivalences 92
    6  Categorical Statements 95
        Universal and Particular Quantifiers 95
        Quantity and Quality 96
        Standard Categorical Form Statements 96
        Translating Ordinary Language Statements into Standard Categorical Form 100
        Existential Import 109
    7  Immediate Deductions 113
        The Square of Opposition 113
        Other Immediate Inferences 123
        Making Multiple Immediate Deductions 128
    8  Categorical Syllogisms 131
        The Basic Parts of a Categorical Syllogism 131
        Distribution of Terms 133
        Five Rules for Testing the Validity of Categorical Syllogisms 134
        Fallacies in Categorical Syllogisms 135
        Formulating and Assessing Categorical Syllogisms in Ordinary Language: The Case for “All Wars
            Are Civil Wars” 148
    9  Generalization 155
        Induction as Probabilistic Reasoning 155
        The Defeasibility of Induction 156
        Probability as Relative to Bearers of Evidence 156
        Induction as Reasoning beyond Direct Experience 157
        Generalization 158
    10  Predictions 169
        Magnifying Risks 170
        The Fallacy of Insisting on the Past 172
        The Fallacy of Ignoring the Past 174
        Seeking Probability as an Antidote to Insisting On and Ignoring the Past 175
        Induction by Analogy: The Case of Animal Experimentation 177
    11 Testimonials 183
        Surfing the Internet to Keep Informed 184
        Mainstream Media as an Information Source 186
        Parroting: The Case of Judith Miller and the New York Times 187
    12  Inductive Hypothesis 191
        Inductive Hypotheses 191
        The Scientific Method: The Case of O. J. Simpson 194
    13  Causation 209
        The Meaning of Causation 209
        Constant Conjunction 212
        Fear and Superstition as the Basis of Causal Judgment 214
        Mill’s Methods of Establishing Causal Relationships 215
        Contrary-to-Fact Conditionals 223
    14  Behavioral Reasoning 227
        The Practical Syllogism 227
        Behavioral Reasoning 229
        A Basic Example: Bill O’Reilly’s Rudeness Argument 229
            Reasoning Containing a Subargument: Adolph Eichmann’s
        Refusal to Take Responsibility for His Nazi War Crimes 232
        Analyzing Extended Arguments: The Case of Weapons of Mass Destruction in Iraq 235
    15  Refutation in Practical Reasoning 247
        Deductive Falsification 248
        Insufficient Inductive Evidence 249
        Reductio ad Absurdum 251
        Double Standards 252
        Informal Fallacies in Practical Reasoning 254
    16  Emotional Reasoning 257
        Emotional Reasoning 257
        What’s in an Emotion? 257
        How to Identify an Emotion and Find Its Premises 260
        Refuting Irrational Premises in Emotional Reasoning 262
        Cognitive Dissonance 263
        Finding an Antidote to a Fallacious Premise in Emotional Reasoning 264
        Exercising Willpower 268
        Logic-Based Stress Management 269

Part II: Informal Fallacies
Fallacies that Promote Self-Destructive Emotions
    17  Inferences from “Must,” “Awful,” and “Can’t” 275
        The Linguistic Theory of Emotions 275
        Demanding Perfection 275
        Awfulizing 281
        Can’tstipation 287
    18  Damning Thoughts and Dutiful Worrying 297
        Self-damnation and Damnation of Others 297
        Global Damnation 304
        Dutiful Worrying 306
        Fallacy Syndromes 311
        Learning to Speak the Rational Emotive Language 316
        Fallacies that Impede Successful Interpersonal Relations
    19 Bandwagon Arguments 319
        The Bandwagon 319
    20  Emotional Appeals 331
        Appeal to Force 331
        Well Poisoning 336
        Misuse of Pity 340
        Respect for Rational Self-determination 344
    21 Irrelevant Appeals 347
        Personal Attacks 347
        Multiplying Wrongs 352
        Appeal to Ignorance 355
        Circular Reasoning 358
        Sweeping Generalization 361
        The Fallacy of Composition 363
        The Fallacy of Division 366
    22 Sophistical Arguments 371
        Fallacies of Ambiguity 371
        Lying versus Telling a Half-truth 373
        Lifting Out of Context 374
        News Slanting 379
        Straw Man Fallacy 383
Appendix: Venn Diagrams 387
Using Venn Diagrams to Test Validity of Standard Form Categorical Syllogisms 387
Index 395

  
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