Critical Thinking Unleashed
Buku ini diterbitkan tahun 2009 oleh Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. UK adalah buku edisi Pertama.
Judul: Critical Thinking Unleashed
Oleh: Elliot D. Cohen
Penerbit: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. UK
Tahun: 2009
Jumlah Halaman: 417 hal.
Penulis:
Elliot D. Cohen
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Lingkup Pembahasan:
Buku ini membahas tentang penggunaan kekuatan berpikir kritis untuk berpikir bebas tentang
masalah kehidupan. Menjadi pemikir bebas seperti membutuhkan kebiasaan terus-menerus menerima
kesimpulan hanya setelah pemeriksaan hati-hati dari penalaran diajukan untuk dukungan mereka. Ini merupakan tantangan yang mengagumkan, mengingat hambatan pribadi, sosial, dan politik masing-masing individu yang dihadapi dalam perjalanan hidup sehari-hari.
Dengan membaca buku ini dan bekerja melalui latihan, Anda akan mulai mengasah keterampilan rasional yang diperlukan untuk memenuhi tantangan ini. Ini adalah proyek seumur hidup.
Buku ini adalah buku untuk membebaskan kekuatan kritis seperti alasan. Hal ini bertujuan untuk membantu mengekspos irasional, mengalahkan diri sendiri, dan ide-ide destruktif yang menyita potensi manusia untuk produktivitas dan kebahagiaan. Hal ini bertujuan untuk mengatasi ide irasional dan menggantinya dengan yang rasional. Ini memberikan alat dan latihan keterampilan-bangunan logis yang dapat membantu Anda melihat melalui logika menyesatkan dan logika bengkok yang mendasari masyarakat-satu tertutup yang gagal menerapkan metode rasional untuk mengatasi masalah manusia.
Daftar Isi:
Preface to the Student xiii
Introduction: Freethinking 1
Part I. Kinds of Reasoning
1 The Nuts and Bolts of Reasoning 11
Arguments 11
Statements That Do Not Form Arguments 12
Presenting an Argument versus Presenting a Good Argument 14
Inductive and Deductive Arguments 17
Identifying Premises and Conclusions in Arguments 19
2 Deductive Reasoning 25
Basics of Deductive Reasoning 25
3 Hypothetical Syllogisms 33
The Vocabulary of Conditional Statements 33
Necessary versus Sufficient Conditions 35
Forms of Hypothetical Syllogism 37
Nonsyllogistic Conditional Arguments 48
Setting Ordinary Language Arguments Up as Hypothetical Syllogisms 49
4 Disjunctive Syllogisms 59
The Core Meaning of “Or” 59
Forms of Disjunctive Syllogisms 60
Black or White Major Premises in Disjunctive Syllogisms 67
False Dilemmas 70
5 Truth-Functional Logic 77
The Meaning of Truth-Functional Logic 77
Symbolizing Truth-Functional Connectives 77
Constructing Truth Tables to Define Truth-Functional Connectives 79
Using Truth Tables to Determine the Validity of Truth-Functional Arguments 80
Symbolizing and Analyzing Arguments in Ordinary Language 84
Statement Forms 89
The Practical Import of Distinguishing Between Tautologous, Contingent, and Contradictory Statement Forms 90
Material versus Logical Equivalence 92
Three Logical Equivalences 92
6 Categorical Statements 95
Universal and Particular Quantifiers 95
Quantity and Quality 96
Standard Categorical Form Statements 96
Translating Ordinary Language Statements into Standard Categorical Form 100
Existential Import 109
7 Immediate Deductions 113
The Square of Opposition 113
Other Immediate Inferences 123
Making Multiple Immediate Deductions 128
8 Categorical Syllogisms 131
The Basic Parts of a Categorical Syllogism 131
Distribution of Terms 133
Five Rules for Testing the Validity of Categorical Syllogisms 134
Fallacies in Categorical Syllogisms 135
Formulating and Assessing Categorical Syllogisms in Ordinary Language: The Case for “All Wars
Are Civil Wars” 148
9 Generalization 155
Induction as Probabilistic Reasoning 155
The Defeasibility of Induction 156
Probability as Relative to Bearers of Evidence 156
Induction as Reasoning beyond Direct Experience 157
Generalization 158
10 Predictions 169
Magnifying Risks 170
The Fallacy of Insisting on the Past 172
The Fallacy of Ignoring the Past 174
Seeking Probability as an Antidote to Insisting On and Ignoring the Past 175
Induction by Analogy: The Case of Animal Experimentation 177
11 Testimonials 183
Surfing the Internet to Keep Informed 184
Mainstream Media as an Information Source 186
Parroting: The Case of Judith Miller and the New York Times 187
12 Inductive Hypothesis 191
Inductive Hypotheses 191
The Scientific Method: The Case of O. J. Simpson 194
13 Causation 209
The Meaning of Causation 209
Constant Conjunction 212
Fear and Superstition as the Basis of Causal Judgment 214
Mill’s Methods of Establishing Causal Relationships 215
Contrary-to-Fact Conditionals 223
14 Behavioral Reasoning 227
The Practical Syllogism 227
Behavioral Reasoning 229
A Basic Example: Bill O’Reilly’s Rudeness Argument 229
Reasoning Containing a Subargument: Adolph Eichmann’s
Refusal to Take Responsibility for His Nazi War Crimes 232
Analyzing Extended Arguments: The Case of Weapons of Mass Destruction in Iraq 235
15 Refutation in Practical Reasoning 247
Deductive Falsification 248
Insufficient Inductive Evidence 249
Reductio ad Absurdum 251
Double Standards 252
Informal Fallacies in Practical Reasoning 254
16 Emotional Reasoning 257
Emotional Reasoning 257
What’s in an Emotion? 257
How to Identify an Emotion and Find Its Premises 260
Refuting Irrational Premises in Emotional Reasoning 262
Cognitive Dissonance 263
Finding an Antidote to a Fallacious Premise in Emotional Reasoning 264
Exercising Willpower 268
Logic-Based Stress Management 269
Part II: Informal Fallacies
Fallacies that Promote Self-Destructive Emotions
17 Inferences from “Must,” “Awful,” and “Can’t” 275
The Linguistic Theory of Emotions 275
Demanding Perfection 275
Awfulizing 281
Can’tstipation 287
18 Damning Thoughts and Dutiful Worrying 297
Self-damnation and Damnation of Others 297
Global Damnation 304
Dutiful Worrying 306
Fallacy Syndromes 311
Learning to Speak the Rational Emotive Language 316
Fallacies that Impede Successful Interpersonal Relations
19 Bandwagon Arguments 319
The Bandwagon 319
20 Emotional Appeals 331
Appeal to Force 331
Well Poisoning 336
Misuse of Pity 340
Respect for Rational Self-determination 344
21 Irrelevant Appeals 347
Personal Attacks 347
Multiplying Wrongs 352
Appeal to Ignorance 355
Circular Reasoning 358
Sweeping Generalization 361
The Fallacy of Composition 363
The Fallacy of Division 366
22 Sophistical Arguments 371
Fallacies of Ambiguity 371
Lying versus Telling a Half-truth 373
Lifting Out of Context 374
News Slanting 379
Straw Man Fallacy 383
Appendix: Venn Diagrams 387
Using Venn Diagrams to Test Validity of Standard Form Categorical Syllogisms 387
Index 395
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